As more of the global population shifts toward urban living, food security has increasingly become an urban issue. In India, this shift is especially significant as urban growth is no longer confined to large metropolises but is expanding rapidly in smaller towns and former rural areas. This transition offers important lessons about the complex relationship between urbanization, livelihoods, and food security. We are particularly interested in examining how this rural-urban transformation impacts food systems, especially for India’s poor and vulnerable populations.
In this blog, we share insights into how India’s rural-urban transition is reshaping food security across the country. Our findings highlight the changing nature of livelihoods, the implications of land-use patterns, and the evolving dietary patterns as more rural households move away from agriculture. These transitions bring both opportunities and risks, and they present urgent policy challenges that need to be addressed to ensure India’s progress on the goal of a food-secure future for all.
A Unique Urban Transition in India
India’s urban transition stands apart from many other countries, particularly those in the Global North. Urbanization in India is not marked by permanent mass migration to large cities or industrial hubs that dominate country’s economic output. Instead, much of the migration to India’s large urban centers is of non-permanent, circular nature. India’s economic growth has been capital and skill-intensive which has benefitted a small section of educated urban dwellers. On the other hand, a large majority of India’s rural population moving to cities to make up for agrarian decline find themselves in precarious jobs in the informal sector which preclude permanent mobility. This exclusionary nature of India’s large cities is fuelling urban growth in smaller towns and areas that were traditionally agrarian. In these regions, rural livelihoods are shifting away from farming toward non-farm jobs. Migration and remittances are important drivers of this urban growth. But official data sources, such as decadal population census, do not fully capture this bottom-led urban growth. This is manifested in unusually low overall urbanization level in India where only 31 percent of country’s population is officially classified as urban.
Economic liberalization in the 1990s accelerated this transformation. While cities like Delhi, Kolkata, and Mumbai continue to grow, their pace of urbanization has slowed. At the same time, former rural areas are rapidly urbanizing, but often without the economic benefits that traditionally accompany urban growth. Large sections of India’s rural population are being excluded from the formal economy, left to rely on low-wage, informal sector jobs in these new urban areas. This exclusionary urbanization has significant implications for food security, particularly for those at the bottom of the economic ladder.
Shifting Livelihoods and Food Security
As rural households move away from farm-based livelihoods, their ability to secure food through self-production is diminishing. Millions of rural dwellers now depend on non-farm jobs, which provide the cash needed to purchase food. However, most of these jobs are in the informal economy, where wages are low and job security is precarious. This shift means that many households have become “net food buyers”—producing less food than they need and relying on the market for their nutritional needs.
This reliance on the market presents both opportunities and challenges. On the one hand, non-farm jobs offer a critical source of income that can help households diversify their diets and improve their food security. But on the other hand, these incomes are often insufficient, and rising food prices pose a significant threat. India’s poor, particularly those who have migrated to urban centers, are highly vulnerable to food price volatility. In recent years, global disruptions such as the COVID-19 pandemic and the Russia-Ukraine conflict have driven up food prices, making it harder for low-income households to afford nutritious food.
One of the central challenges we’ve observed is that rural-urban migrants often retain their agricultural land as a safety net, yet these plots are too small to provide meaningful income or food security. As a result, many families are caught in a precarious balance, relying on low wages and shrinking agricultural output to meet their daily needs.
Urban Growth at the Cost of Agriculture
The rapid urbanization of former rural areas has also led to significant changes in land use, with large swathes of agricultural land being converted into urban developments. Between 2001 and 2010, India lost approximately 700,000 hectares of farmland to urban growth. This trend is especially pronounced in smaller towns and peripheral regions, where land is more readily available for development.
While this urban expansion supports economic growth, it comes at the expense of long-term food security. The shrinking availability of farmland threatens India’s capacity to sustain agricultural production, especially in the context of climate change, which is already putting pressure on farming systems. Although the loss of farmland has not yet resulted in a reduction in food production, the trend is concerning. Rising food prices will likely hit the urban poor hardest, exacerbating existing inequalities and deepening food insecurity.
We have seen that as urban areas encroach on rural land, the very poor are left more vulnerable to price shocks. In some cases, these changes in land use could drive up the cost of food, making it even more difficult for low-income households to access the nutrition they need.
The Double Burden of Malnutrition
Another concerning trend we’ve observed is the rise of the “double burden” of malnutrition in India’s rapidly urbanizing areas. While hunger and undernutrition remain pressing issues for many low-income households, urbanization has introduced new dietary patterns that are leading to an increase in obesity and diet-related diseases. As more people shift away from traditional, farm-based diets to more processed, calorie-dense foods, the incidence of obesity is rising—particularly among the urban wealthy but also among poorer populations.
While urban diets offer more variety and access to higher-quality foods like fruits and vegetables, these benefits are not evenly distributed. The urban poor often lack the financial resources to afford these healthier options and instead rely on cheaper, high-calorie foods that contribute to poor nutrition. This creates a stark nutritional divide, where wealthier households can afford a balanced diet, while poorer families are stuck consuming nutrient-poor foods that exacerbate their risk of both undernutrition and obesity.
Rethinking Food Security in an Urbanizing India
As India continues its rural-urban transition, we must rethink our approach to food security. Urbanization alone will not automatically lead to better food outcomes for all. For many households, especially those in lower-income brackets, the shift to urban living introduces new challenges—unstable wages, rising food prices, and the loss of traditional farming livelihoods. Addressing these challenges requires a comprehensive, multi-sectoral approach that focuses on both rural and urban food systems.
Policies that promote the sustainable use of agricultural land and protect it from unchecked urban expansion are essential. Additionally, improving access to formal, higher-paying jobs in non-farm sectors will help vulnerable populations withstand food price volatility and reduce their dependence on precarious informal work. More immediately, there is a need to strengthen the food-based safety nets to safeguard and improve vulnerable populations’ food and nutritional wellbeing.
Toward a More Secure Food Future
The rural-urban transition in India is both an opportunity and a challenge. As more people leave farming behind and seek alternative nonfarm livelihoods, we must ensure that these changes do not deepen food insecurity. By addressing the root causes of exclusionary urbanization and supporting more inclusive, equitable food systems, we can ensure that India’s rural-urban transition leads to a more food-secure future for all.
As we move forward, it’s critical that policymakers recognize the complex interplay between urban growth, land use, and food security. By focusing on the unique challenges facing rural-urban migrants, we can begin to develop solutions that not only protect India’s food systems but also promote healthier, more sustainable livelihoods for the millions of people navigating this rural-urban transition.
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